Simplified history of the Jews in the land of Israel:
In the second century, the Jewish people were basically removed entirely (and forcefully) from the land by the Romans, who controlled the region. The Roman empire naturally morphed into the Catholic church. The area was taken over by the Muslims in their aggressive and brutal expansionist colonial conquest of the region. It was briefly taken back by Christians during the First Crusade, but Muslims once again took it back and repelled all future attempts of another Christian takeover. The Muslims would dominate and control the region for a thousands years until being taken over by the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, the United Kingdom was placed in charge of the region by the League of Nations. Jewish immigration began increasing in the area due to various reasons, such as growing anti-Semitism in Europe. There were lots of Jewish and Arab conflicts along the way, including an insanely violent Arab attack on the Jewish community of Hebron in 1929. The Arab community was not a fan of the Jewish immigration to the area. There was a proposal to split the land in 1947, some for the Jews, some for the Arabs. The Jews accepted the plan, the Arabs rejected it, and war ensued. Israel won, declared a nation, and we were plunged into the madness that leads us to this very day. In 76 years Israel went from draining malaria-filled swamps to one of the most technically advanced nations in the world. Despite constant war and terrorism, Israel has managed to thrive economically. It has some of the most advanced cities you’ll find anywhere. And Israel has done all of this on the coattails of the worst genocide in world history, the holocaust, while constantly having to deal with massive security threats from Islamist terrorist groups. And with millions attempting to destroy the nation, a culture has prevailed of tolerance, inclusivity, innovation, and democracy. Most would crumble under what Israel has dealt with. Instead Israel has persevered and thrived.
Religion Landscape of Roman Empire in the 2nd Century.
During the 2nd century, the Roman Empire was still predominantly pagan, with a diverse array of cults and religions. Christianity was a minority faith, but it was growing rapidly.
Here’s a rough breakdown of the Roman Empire’s religious landscape in the 2nd century:
– Pagans: The majority of Romans still practiced traditional Roman religion, worshiping a pantheon of gods and goddesses, including Jupiter, Mars, and Venus.
– Christians: Christianity was spreading rapidly, particularly in urban centres like Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Estimates suggest that Christians made up around 1-5% of the empire’s population.
– Jews: Judaism was an established minority faith in the Roman Empire, with a significant presence in cities like Rome, Alexandria, and Jerusalem.
– Other cults and philosophies: The Roman Empire was home to a diverse array of cults, philosophies, and mystery religions, such as the cult of Isis, Mithraism, and Stoicism.
While Christianity was not yet a dominant force in the Roman Empire during the 2nd century, it was gaining momentum and would eventually become a major influence on Roman society and politics.
The Roman Empire was a vast and diverse entity, and the prevalence of Christianity varied greatly depending on the region, city, or social class.
The Ottoman Empire was not always predominantly Muslim. While Islam played a significant role in the empire’s formation and expansion, the Ottoman Empire was initially a diverse, multicultural, and multi-religious state.
In its early stages, the Ottoman Empire was a Turkish tribal state that emerged in the late 13th century in northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. The Ottoman rulers, or sultans, were Muslims, but the population under their control was diverse, comprising Christians, Jews, and Muslims.
During the Ottoman Empire’s expansion into the Balkans and the Middle East, it absorbed many non-Muslim populations, including Christians and Jews. These communities were allowed to maintain their religious practices and institutions, and they played important roles in the empire’s administration, economy, and culture.
However, over time, the Ottoman Empire became increasingly Islamized. The sultans promoted Islam as the official religion, and many non-Muslims converted to Islam to gain social and economic advantages.
By the 16th century, Muslims had become the dominant population in the Ottoman Empire, particularly in its urban centres. Nevertheless, non-Muslim communities continued to exist and thrive within the empire, particularly in regions like the Balkans and the Middle East.
It’s worth noting that the Ottoman Empire’s millet system, which recognized and protected the rights of non-Muslim communities, allowed for a degree of religious diversity and tolerance. This system was unique for its time and contributed to the empire’s cultural and religious richness.
The millet system was a unique administrative and social framework implemented by the Ottoman Empire to manage and govern its diverse, multi-ethnic, and multi-religious populations. The term “millet” (Turkish: millet, Arabic: milliyya) means “nation” or “community.”
Under the millet system, the Ottoman authorities recognized and protected the rights of non-Muslim communities, including Christians, Jews, and others. Each millet was treated as a distinct entity, with its own laws, customs, and institutions.
Here are the key features of the millet system:
1. Autonomy: Each millet had a degree of autonomy to govern its internal affairs, including education, marriage, and inheritance.
2. Leadership: Each millet had its own leader, often a high-ranking cleric or community leader, who represented the community in dealings with the Ottoman authorities.
3. Taxes: Members of each millet paid a special tax, known as the jizya, in exchange for protection and the right to practice their faith.
4. Protection: The Ottoman authorities provided protection to members of each millet, ensuring their safety and security.
5. Jurisdiction: Each millet had its own courts and judicial systems, which handled cases involving members of the same millet.
The millet system was not without its limitations and challenges. For example:
– Members of each millet were often subject to certain restrictions, such as limitations on their ability to own property or hold public office.
– The system was not always consistently applied, and there were instances of persecution and violence against minority groups.
– The millet system was also subject to abuse, with some millet leaders using their power to exploit their own communities.
The Ottoman Empire’s stated reasons for the Greek, Assyrian, and Armenian genocides, which occurred during World War I and its aftermath, are complex and multifaceted. However, it’s essential to note that these reasons have been widely disputed and debunked by historians and scholars as mere pretexts for ethnic cleansing and genocide.
How did the Ottoman Empire seek to justify the Assyrian, Armenian and Greek Genocides?
Here are some of the Ottoman Empire’s stated reasons:
1. Security concerns: The Ottoman government claimed that the Greek, Assyrian, and Armenian populations posed a threat to national security, allegedly collaborating with enemy powers (e.g., Greece, Russia) or seeking independence.
2. Disloyalty and treason: Ottoman authorities accused these groups of disloyalty, treason, and rebellion against the state, which they claimed justified their persecution.
3. Economic and social factors: Some Ottoman officials and media outlets portrayed the Greek, Assyrian, and Armenian communities as economically dominant and exploitative, fuelling resentment and xenophobia among the Muslim population.
4. Pan-Turkism and nationalism: The Ottoman government, influenced by pan-Turkist and nationalist ideologies, sought to create a more homogeneous Turkish state, which led to the suppression of minority groups.
However, it’s crucial to recognize that these stated reasons were merely pretexts for a systematic campaign of persecution, deportation, and extermination. The Ottoman Empire’s actions resulted in the deaths of:
– An estimated 1.5 million Armenians (1915-1923)
– Approximately 750,000 Greeks (1914-1923)
– Around 250,000 Assyrians (1915-1920)
These events are widely recognized as genocides by scholars, historians, and many countries.
Ottoman Empire in the 20th Century:
The Ottoman Empire was allied with the Central Powers, which included Germany, during World War I.
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers, signing a secret treaty with Germany. This alliance was motivated by several factors, including:
1. Anti-Russian sentiment: The Ottoman Empire had long been concerned about Russian expansion in the Caucasus and the Black Sea region.
2. Desire for territorial gains: The Ottomans hoped to regain lost territories in the Balkans and the Middle East.
3. Economic interests: Germany offered significant economic incentives, including loans and investments in Ottoman infrastructure.
During World War I, the Ottoman Empire fought against the Allied Powers, including Britain, France, and Russia. The war effort proved disastrous for the Ottoman Empire, leading to significant territorial losses and contributing to the empire’s eventual collapse.
Regarding World War II, the modern Republic of Turkey, which was established in 1923 after the Ottoman Empire’s collapse, maintained a policy of neutrality during the early years of the war.
However, in 1941, Turkey signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, and later, in 1944, Turkey declared war on Germany, but only after it became clear that the Allies would emerge victorious.
So, while the Ottoman Empire was allied with Germany during World War I, the modern Turkish state maintained a more nuanced and complex relationship with Germany during World War II.
supplemental 1:
The Jizya (also spelled Jizyah or Jizzya) was a tax levied on non-Muslim subjects, known as dhimmis, living in Muslim-ruled territories, including the Ottoman Empire. The Jizya was a key component of the dhimma system, which governed the relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims in Islamic societies.
Here’s a breakdown of the Jizya:
Purpose:
The Jizya was intended to symbolize the submission of non-Muslims to Muslim rule and to acknowledge the protection (dhimma) provided by the Muslim state. In return for paying the Jizya, non-Muslims were granted the right to practice their faith, maintain their communities, and engage in economic activities.
Who paid the Jizya:
The Jizya was typically paid by adult, male non-Muslims, including Christians, Jews, and other religious minorities. Women, children, and the poor were usually exempt.
Amount and collection:
The amount of the Jizya varied across different regions and historical periods. In the Ottoman Empire, the Jizya was typically collected annually, and the amount was determined based on the individual’s income or social status.
Implications:
While the Jizya was not necessarily an onerous tax, its payment was often accompanied by other humiliating and discriminatory measures, such as:
– Wearing distinctive clothing or symbols to identify oneself as a non-Muslim
– Restrictions on building and repairing non-Muslim places of worship
– Limitations on non-Muslims holding public office or serving in the military
– Social and economic segregation
The Jizya system contributed to the marginalization and subjugation of non-Muslim populations in Muslim-ruled societies, reinforcing social and economic hierarchies.
It’s worth noting that the Jizya system has been largely abolished in modern times, and many Muslim-majority countries have adopted more inclusive and egalitarian policies towards their non-Muslim citizens. Also worth noting that the Jizya is tantamount to a ‘protection racket’ of the same sort that mafia use in New York, NY, Italy, Sicily, etc etc, in that you pay the protection fee, in this case the ‘Jizya’ to be protected from the Muslims themselves, so you pay or else they attack you, brutalize you and/or your family.
The Jizya originates from Islamic law and tradition, and its roots can be traced back to the Quran and the Hadith (the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad).
In the Quran, the Jizya is mentioned in several verses, including:
1. Surah Al-Tawbah (9:29): “Fight those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth [Islam] from those who were given the Scripture [Jews and Christians] until they pay the jizyah willingly while they are humbled.”
This verse is often cited as the basis for the Jizya. It instructs Muslims to fight against non-Muslims who do not submit to Islamic rule, until they agree to pay the Jizya.
Other Quranic verses, such as Surah Al-Baqarah (2:256) and Surah Al-Imran (3:64), also touch on the concept of the Jizya, but Surah Al-Tawbah (9:29) is the most explicit.
In addition to the Quran, the Hadith and Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) also provide guidance on the implementation of the Jizya.
It’s worth noting that different interpretations and understandings of the Jizya exist within Islamic scholarship, and some modern Muslim scholars and thinkers have reinterpreted or rejected the concept of the Jizya as incompatible with modern values of equality and human rights.
Here’s a list of genocides, massacres, and persecutions of Jewish populations by Islamic forces since the 7th century:
1. The Banu Qurayza massacre (627 CE): Muhammad’s forces besieged and killed approximately 600-900 Jewish men of the Banu Qurayza tribe in Medina.
2. The Khaybar massacre (628 CE): Muhammad’s forces attacked and killed many Jewish inhabitants of Khaybar, a Jewish oasis in Arabia.
3. The conquest of Jerusalem (638 CE): Caliph Umar’s forces conquered Jerusalem, and while there are varying accounts, some sources suggest that many Jews were killed or expelled.
4. The Persian Jewish persecution (7th-8th centuries): Under Arab rule, Persian Jews faced persecution, forced conversions, and massacres.
5. The 1066 Granada massacre: A Muslim mob killed approximately 4,000 Jews in Granada, Spain.
6. The Almohad persecutions (12th-13th centuries): The Almohad Caliphate, which ruled much of North Africa and Spain, persecuted and forced conversions of Jewish populations.
7. The 1291 Baghdad massacre: Mongol and Muslim forces killed an estimated 1,000-2,000 Jews in Baghdad.
8. The 1391 massacres in Spain: Anti-Jewish riots and massacres occurred in several Spanish cities, including Barcelona, Valencia, and Seville.
9. The Ottoman Empire’s persecution of Jews (15th-20th centuries): While the Ottoman Empire was often more tolerant of Jews than Christian Europe, there were still instances of persecution, forced conversions, and massacres, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries.
10. The 1820-1830 Safed massacres: Arab and Druze mobs killed many Jewish inhabitants of Safed, a city in Ottoman Palestine.
11. The 1920-1921 Nebi Musa riots: Arab riots in Jerusalem and other cities in Palestine resulted in the deaths of many Jewish inhabitants.
12. The 1929 Hebron massacre: Arab mobs killed 67 Jewish inhabitants of Hebron, and many more were injured or displaced.
13. The 1941 Farhud massacre: A Nazi-inspired pogrom in Baghdad killed an estimated 180 Jews and injured many more.
14. The 1945-1949 anti-Jewish riots in Libya and Egypt: Arab mobs attacked Jewish communities in Libya and Egypt, resulting in many deaths and the displacement of tens of thousands of Jews.
This list is not exhaustive, and there are other instances of persecution, massacres, and genocides that are not included here.
10. The 1820-1830 Safed massacres: Arab and Druze mobs killed many Jewish inhabitants of Safed, a city in Ottoman Palestine.
11. The 1920-1921 Nebi Musa riots: Arab riots in Jerusalem and other cities in Palestine resulted in the deaths of many Jewish inhabitants.
12. The 1929 Hebron massacre: Arab mobs killed 67 Jewish inhabitants of Hebron, and many more were injured or displaced.
13. The 1941 Farhud massacre: A Nazi-inspired pogrom in Baghdad killed an estimated 180 Jews and injured many more.
14. The 1945-1949 anti-Jewish riots in Libya and Egypt: Arab mobs attacked Jewish communities in Libya and Egypt, resulting in many deaths and the displacement of tens of thousands of Jews.
This list is not exhaustive, and there are other instances of persecution, massacres, and genocides that are not included here.
About The League of Nations:
The League of Nations was an international organization established after World War I with the primary goal of promoting peace, security, and cooperation among nations. Founded in 1920 as part of the Treaty of Versailles, the League aimed to prevent future wars through collective security, diplomacy, and arbitration.
The League’s structure consisted of an Assembly, a Council, and a Secretariat. The Assembly represented all member states, while the Council comprised four permanent members (Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) and four non-permanent members. The Secretariat, led by a Secretary-General, oversaw the League’s administrative tasks.
Despite its noble goals, the League faced significant challenges, including the absence of major powers like the United States and Germany. The League’s inability to prevent aggressive actions by countries like Japan, Italy, and Germany ultimately led to its downfall.
The League’s failures paved the way for the establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945. The UN learned from the League’s mistakes, creating a more robust and inclusive structure. Key differences between the two organizations include:
Decision-making processes: The UN allows for more flexibility in decision-making, whereas the League required unanimous votes.
Membership: The UN has nearly universal membership, whereas the League had limited membership.
Security Council: The UN Security Council has more permanent members (five) and allows for more flexibility in voting procedures.
The League of Nations officially ceased to exist on April 20, 1946, transferring its assets and responsibilities to the United Nations. Despite its shortcomings, the League played a crucial role in shaping the concept of international cooperation and paved the way for the establishment of the United Nations.
